Тексты к экзамену по английскому языку.

Cambridge

There are 22 universities in Great Britain: 16 in England, 4 in Scotland, 1 in Wales and 1 in Northern Ireland. A university consists of a number of faculties: medicine, arts, law, music, natural science, agriculture, commerce and education. After three years of study, a student may proceed to a Bachelor's degree and later to the degree of Master and Doctor. The colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, are essentially residential institutions and apart from lectures they mainly use a tutorial method. Each student goes to his tutor's room once a week to read and discuss an essay which he has prepared.
The oldest and most famous universities in England are Oxford and Cambridge. Oxford and Cambridge are rather far from London and therefore the students have to live in the university hostel or in a private room.
Cambridge is mainly a town of students. Many great men studied at Cambridge, among them Newton, the scientist Bacon, the philosopher Milton, the poet, Сromwell, the soldier and statesman.
There are 19 colleges at the University now, two of them are for women students. Women students do not take a very active part in university life at Cambridge.
The students are mainly English but there are plenty of others. There is a variety of races, religions and points of view among the students of the University.
Wireless is of importance in university education. At home students after their day's work can hear lectures by eminent teachers on all kinds of subjects. Every student has a tutor. The tutor plans his students work and discusses with them their work.
The story of Cambridge University began in 1209. That year several hundred students arrived in the little town of Cambridge from Oxford. Life at Oxford was very hard at that time as there was constant trouble between the people of the town and the students. In protest all the students moved to different parts of the country and some came to Cambridge and so the new University began.

INFORMATICS
 
Information (data) is a set of marks that have meaning. Informatics is a collection of computer theo­ries and novel information technologies.
Throughout the centuries man has developed and refined the ability to record, process, and communicate information. The principal use of computers has been in the area of applied mathematics. Nowadays computers have become increasingly important as basic tools for analysis. This operation requires highly refined and flexible techniques.
An important aspect of the work in informatics for mathematicians deals with the math theory of communication.
The problems of decision-making, thinking and synthesis, imagination and creative endeavor of people, come under the scrutiny of informatics.
Informatics is a young science and yet it is increas­ingly applied in various branches of industry and research, invading a wide range of fields in human activity. Informatics endeavors to find the answer to two major questions: the best way of controlling this or that process, and the best way of utilizing a machine (if possible) for controlling this process.

Great Britain
The name "Britain" comes from the Ancient Celtic. The earliest known people in Britain were, of Iberian origin. The Celts invaded Britain between 700 and 300 B.C. and the Romans, after Julius-Caesar's expeditions of 55 and 54 B.C. invaded in 43 A.D
The British Isles form a group of islands lying of the north-west coast of Europe with an area of about 244 thousand square kilometers. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland consists of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Great Britain, the largest island, is separated from Ireland by the Irish Sea and from the Continent by the English Channel and the Strait of Dover.
The surface of England and Ireland is rather flat while the area of Scotland and most of Wales is mountainous.
The rivers are not very long but they are deep. The chief rivers are the Severn and the Thames. The Thames flows through London, and makes it a large seaport.
The climate of Great Britain is mild and rainy. Most of the rain falls in late autumn and in winter. The average London temperature is 4C in January and 18C in July.
The population of Britain is more than 56 million people. It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. London is the capital of Great Britain.
GreatBritain is a highly developed industrial country. The main industries are food products, motorcars, shipbuilding, textiles, chemicals and others. There are many industrial cities in Great Britain such as London, Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool, Birmingham and many others. There are many university cities and towns in Great Britain, among which Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest.
Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy. Queen Elisabeth II is the head of the state. In practice she reigns but doesn't rules. The country is governed in her name by the Government. Parliament is the supreme legislative body. It consists of two chambers: the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
At present there are four main parties in Great Britain: Conservative, Labour, Liberal and Communists. It is the Communist Party that stands for the real interests of English working people. It was founded in 1920.

Mikhail Lomonosov(1711-1765)

M.V.Lomonosov was born in 1711 in a small near the town of Kolmogori.
At an early age the boy often went with his father to the White Sea and learning much about fishing. The boy did not to school but he was eager to learn and learned to read at an early age.
At the age of 19 he left his home and went on foot to Moscow. He studied hard for five years in the Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy. As Lomonosov was extremely capable and made great progress, he was sent to Petersburg to study at the Gumnasium of the Academy of Sciences.
In 1736 the Academy of Scientist sent Lomonosov to Germany where he studied chemistry and metallurge. Lomonosov founded the first chemical laboratory in Russia, where he produced stained glass. He formulated the main principle of the Low of Conservation of Matter and Motion. He studied natural reasources of the earth and made experiments with atmospheric electricity. Lomonosov developed the Russian literary language – he wrote the first Russian grammar and wrote poetry, introduced such terms as thermometer, formula, atmosphere, and others into the Russian language.
In 1745 Lomonosov was made academician and appointed professor of chemistry.
The Moscow University was founded in 1755 on the initiative of Lomonosov. Lomonosov was Rector of Petersburg University, during the last years of his life.

INTERNET EDUCATION
 
Data and knowledge are essen­tially inseparable and all their structures are logically, associatively and semantically interconnected. They are a data base, a knowledge base, a models base.
Artificial intelligence issues such as knowledge representation logic, rea­soning, and planning are a concern of both experts and instructors, and a computer assisted instructional system. Some computer systems can be classified by two signs: functions and inner structure. If from the teacher's point of view the system corresponds to the teaching target forms, and consol­idates student's knowledge and practical skills with appropriate rules of obtain­ing knowledge out of data base, then it is an expert education system.
The process of modelling can be regarded as a moment — from complex reality to a model in which reality is deliberately simplified, but the most significant relations and processes are emphasised. The process of dismodelling assumes learner's insight and learner is able to penetrate deeper into the nature of reality.
Educationcan be enhanced by using all or most of the human senses. Multimedia is now an established technology that delivers (transfers) multisensory information. Under the control of a computer a multimedia system can produce in a single presentation an integration of text, graphics, sound, video and animation. Learning becomes a unique involving experience.
People Power. A human-computer collaborative learning system — it has been implemented in LISP on the Apple Macintosh. A pair of learners is a single cognitive agent whose components are distributed over two brains.
There is recently a lot of interest in computer-based collaborative learn­ing partly because of the resource limitations and partly because it facilitates (makes easy) learning. Collaborative learning is just as good as individual learning and often far superior. The development and introduction of Expert Tutoring Systems are one of the major practical results of new information technology application in the educated system. Intelligent tutoring systems are finding their way from labs into training applications in schools, business, industry and military.

LONDON
London is the capital of Great Britain, its political, economic and cultural centre. London is an ancient city. The popula­tion of London is nine million people.
London is one of the biggest cities of the world and, it is also an important port. It is situated on the banks of the river Thames.
London can be divided into four main parts: the West End, the East End,
the City and Westminster.
The City, the oldest part of London, is the heart of the business and financial life of the country. There are many big banks and various offices here. It is situatedround St. Paul's Cathedral.
But the real centre of London is Westminster - the centre of British admini­stration. Most of the government buildings are in Westminster. Here on the bank of the river Thames, we can see the Houses of Parliament with its Clock Tower from which the chimes of famous Big. Westminster Abbey is the place where kings and queens, statesmen, writers, poets are buried. The West End is the part where the rich people live. It is also a fashionable shopping and entertainment centre with the finest theatres, the best hotels, shops and restuarants. The most beautiful London park - Hyde Park is in this district too.
The East End is the poorest part of London. The workers and the poorest people live here. The East End is unattractive in appearance but it is very important in the country's economy.
There are many architectural, art and historical monuments and museums in London such as the famous British Museum, the National Gallery, St. Paul's Ca­thedral, the Nelson Column and others.

Mathematics and Modern Civilization
Mathematics is the queen of natural knowledge.
K. F. Gauss
Math method is reasoning of the highest level known to man, and every field of investigation — be it law, politics, psychology, medicine or anthropology — has felt its influence and had modelled itself on maths to some extent ever since its creation.
1. Maths has been supplying a language for the treatment of the quantitative problems of the physical and social sciences. Much of this language has taken the form of math symbols.
2. Maths has been supplying science with numerous methods and conclusions. Among the important conclusions are its formulas, which scientists have accepted and used in solving problems.
3. Maths has been enabling the sciences to make predictions. The two astronomers Leverrier and Adams. Predicted that there must exist another planet beyond those known at the time. A search for it in the sky at the predicted place and time revealed the planet Neptune.
4. Maths has been furnishing science with ideas to describe phenomena. Among such ideas may be mentioned the idea for functional relation; the graphical representation of functional relations by means of coordinate geometry; the notion of a limit; the notion of infinite classes which helps us to understand motion. The description is not complete without mentioning the fact that for many physical phenomena no exact concepts exist other than math ones.

MOSCOW
 
Moscow is the capital of Russia. It was founded more than eight centuries ago (in 1147) by Yuri Dolgoruki. In 1918 Moscow became the capital of our Motherland.
Moscow is a big industrial, cultural and political centre of the country. Moscow's numerous plants and factories produce different goods for the population and various machines for all branches of national economy.
Moscow is also a large educational and scientific centre. There are many educa­tional establishments of various kinds and research institutes in Moscow. The oldest Russian educational establishment - Moscow University - is also here. Moscow is beautiful. We admire its fine buildings, palaces, architectural monuments, green parks and squares.
The Moscow underground is without doubt the best in the world. It connects the centre of the city with almost all districts and suburbs of Moscow.
The centre of Moscow is Red Square where the Kremlin and the Mausoleum are situated. The cultural life of the capital is very rich. There are a lot of cinemas, theatres and art exhibitions in Moscow. Our capital is also famous for one of the largest libraries in the world. The Lenin Library where you can find all that is necessary for work and study.

ON EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN

The oldest and the most celebrated Universities of Great Britain are those in Oxford and Cambridge. There are also universities in London, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham and other cities.
There are no state universities in Britain, each of the universities has its own government. It is the state defines their status and gives them the power to grant degrees to students. The form of examination and the standards of knowledge and intelligence required for a first degree (Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science) are about the same at all the universities.
The first postgraduate degree is Master, given for a thesis based on one year's full-time work. The degree of Doctor of Philosophy is given for a thesis which is an original contribution to knowledge.
The University is a sort of federation of colleges. The university prescribes syllabuses, arranges lectures, conducts examinations and awards degrees, but there is no single building which can be called the University. The colleges and university building are scattered about the town.
Each college is governed by its Fellows. The Fellows are responsible for teaching their own students through the tutorial system.
It is more expensive to study at Oxford and Cambridge than at any other university and it is not easy to find a place to study at Oxford or Cambridge. The number of applicants is several times as great as the number of places available. Colleges tend to admit young men who are good at sport, sons of former students, or sons of respectable citizens or millionaires, because they can support the university financially.
Part of the teaching at all faculties is by means of lectures arranged by the university, and any student may attend any university lecture.
Apart from lectures teaching is by means of the "tutorial system". This is a system of individual consultations. Each Fellow in a college is a tutor in his own subject to the undergraduates who are studding it. Each student every week has a tutorial. He reads out an essay which he has written and for an hour he and the tutor discuss the essay. Before writing an essay the student may consult his tutor. T Education in Great Britain is class-divided and selective.

RF STATE SYSTEM

The Russian Federative Republic is set up by the Constitution of 1993. Under the Constitution Russia is a Presidential Republic. The federal government consists of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial.
The legislative power is vested in the Federal Assembly. It consists of two chambers. The Upper Chamber is the Council of Federation. The Lower Chamber is the State Duma. Each Chamber is headed by a speaker.
The President serves as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, he makes treaties, enforces federal laws.
The executive power belongs to the Government which is headed by the Prime Minister. The
Powers of the Government are rather numerous for example - direction of economic, social and cultural development, drafting of the current and longterm state plans for the economic and social development and the Budget of the country.
The judicial branch is represented by the Constitutial Court.
The Supreme Court is the highest and the district (city) people's courts are the lowest in the judicial system.
There are three divisions in the system of the Supreme Court: the division for criminal cases,
the division for civil cases and the military division
The Procurator-General the Council of Federation appoints for a term of five years is to supervise over the strict observance of laws. The post of procurator in our country is not elective, procurators are appointed by the Procurator-General.

Russian Federation

Russia (the official name-the Russian Federation) is the largest country in the world. The total area of our country is 17.000000 square kilometers. The population is about 145000000 people. Russia is a multinational state. One part, of Russia lies in Europe, the other in Asia. The Ural mountains separate Europe from Asia. The surface of the country is much varied. The biggest plains are the Great Russian Plain in the eastern Europe and the West Siberian Plain in the Asian part of the country. The northern boundary of Russia is washed by the Arctic Ocean and its seas. In the west it borders on the Baltic Countries. In the South it borders on China, Mongolia and Asian countries. In the east Russia is washed by the Pacific Ocean and its seas. Russia has a lot of rivers. There are about 150.000 rivers and 250.000 lakes. The Volga, the Oka and the Ural are among the longest rivers in the European part of our country. The Volga is veryimportant for the economy of our country. The biggest and the deepest lake of the world is Baikal. The longest rivers in the Asian Part of the country are the Yenissei and the Ob.
The climate in our country is mainly continental. Winter in some parts of the country lasts for six months. The climate of the Black Sea coast is subtropical.
Our country is rich in natural resources. Such as coal, oil, peat, iron, timber, natural gas and gold.
The history of Russia is very rich. Under the sars, the government of Russia was in Saint-Petersburg. In the spring of 1918 the seat of the Government was moved from Petrograd to Moscow. Since men Moscow has, been the capital of our country.
Now we have a president at the head of our country. The flag of Russia has 3 colours: white, blue and red.

THE STATE SYSTEM OF GREAT BRITAIN
 
Britain is a parliamentary monarchy. It does not have a single constitutional document. Instead, it consists of parliamentary laws, judicial precedents, and constitutional agreements of customs.
The chief of state is the king (or queen). Royal power is for live and is inherited by the monarch's direct descendants in the male line. The monarch is considered, to "be the supreme bearer of executive power, the head of the judicial system, the supreme commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and the head of the Commonwealth. Juridically the monarch has the right to appoint the Prime Minister, the other ministers, judges, diplomats, officers of the army, navy, and air forces.
The highest organ of legislative power is Parliament, which consists of the King (or Queen), the House of Lords, and the House of Commons.
The general national representative institution of Britain is the lower house-the House of Commons.
The upper house of the British Parliament the House of Lords, is an archaic institution that consists of peers.
The government of Britain comprises 80 to 100 persons. It includes departmental ministers and non-departmental ministers. The government is headed by a Prime Minister. In fact, since the beginning of the 18-th century the highest organ of executive power in Britain has been the cabinet of ministers, which concentrates in its hands all the important powers for carrying out domestic and foreign policy.

THE STORY OF ALGEBRA

When algebra began some five thousand years ago, there were no symbols such as those that we use today, and yet some of the algebra of ancient time seems very modern.
The ancient Babylonians did their writing with wedge-shaped symbols. They solved many problems by algebraic methods. They also used some of the same rules for measurement that we do. The Babylonians made their records by stamping the wedge-shaped symbols on clay tablets.
The ancient Greeks of classical times (about 2300 years ago) were more interested in geometry than in algebra. They even found ways of solving some algebra-type problems by geometric methods. They made symbols for numbers.
A Greek named Diophantus who lived in Alexandria used several symbols of his own invention for unknown numbers and for various operations.
Some of rule that Diophantus used for operating with algebraic expressions were similar to ours. However, he did not understand negative numbers as we use them today.
About 1300 years ago a Hindu by the name of Brahmagupta first understood negative numbers, but he did not always use them in the general sense that we use them, and many men who came after Brahmagupta failed to understand these numbers.
The Arabs being situated geographically between the Greeks and the Hindus, their mathematical knowledge came from both.
The digits that we use in writing numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 – are called Hindu-Arabic numerals because they also came to us from the Hindus by way of the Arabs.

MATHEMATICS – THE LANGUAGE OF SCIENCE

One of the foremost reasons given for the study of maths is use a common phrase, that "maths is the language of science”. It implies that even a layman must know something about the foundations, the scope and the basic role played by maths in our scientific age. The language of maths consists mostly of signs and symbols, and, in a sense, is an spoken language. There can be no more universal or more simple language it is the same throughout the civilized world, though the people of each country translate it into their own particular spoken language. Some of the best known symbols of maths are numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0 and the sings of addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*), division (/), equality (=) and the letters of the alphabets: Greek, Latin, Gothic and Hebrew (rather rarely).
Symbolic language is one of the basic characteristics of modern maths for it determines its true aspect. With the aid of symbolism mathematicians can make transition in reasoning almost mechanically by the eye and leave their mind free to grasp the fundamental ideas of subject matter. The language of maths is carefully, purposefully and often ingeniously designed. By virtue of its compactness, it permits a mathematician to work with ideas which when expressed in terms of common language are unmanageable. This compactness makes for efficiency of thought.
Math language is precise and concise, so that it often confusing people unaccustomed, to its forms. The symbolism used in math language inessential to distinguish meanings often confused in common speech. Math style aims at brevity and formal perfection. We use signs and symbols for convenience. In some cases the symbols are abbreviations of words, but often they no such relations to the thing they stand for. We cannot say why they stand for what they do, they mean what they do by common agreement or by definition.

SOPHIA KOVALEVSKAYA

S. Kovalevskaya was born in 1850. She spent her childhood in her father's estate. The house where the family lived had a large park and the girl loved to walk there thinking about different things.
Her first teacher of mathematics was the wall. The girl used to stand before the wall and tried to understand the signs and symbols of higher mathematics.
To understand some formulas she used the textbook of physics by professor Tirtov. Professor Tirtov often visited Kovalevskaya's parents.
The professor called Sophia a genius and insisted on her studying mathematics. But at that time it was impossible for a woman to enter any higher school. She went, to Berlin but women were not admitted to the University there either. So she found the address of a famous professor Weierstrass and went to him.
Professor Weierstrass agreed to teach Kovalevskaya privately. When three scientific masterpieces by Kovalevskaya appeared in 1874, Hettingen University awarded her the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Only her hard work helped her to graduate from the University and to get a Doctor's Degree.
She was eager to return to her native country, but did tsarist Government did not want to have women-professors in Russia. So she went to Sweden in 1883 and worked at the University in Stockholm. In her numerous scientific works Kovalevskaya solved the problems which many scientists had failed to solve during many years. In 1888 Kovalevskaya got the First reward of 5,000 francs from Paris Academy of Sciences for her The Rotation of a Solid at the Fixed Point. In 1889 Kovalevskaya got the reward from the Swedish Academy of Sciences.
In 1889 Russian academicians Chebishev, Imshenetsky and Bunjakovsky succeeded in electing Sophia Kovalevskaya a Correspondent Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. On the 10th of February 1891 Sophia Kovalevskaya died of consumption. In 1896 Russian women together with some social organizations erected a monument to a great Russian woman - Sophia Kovalevskaya.

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My Future Profession
 
Leaving school is the beginning of the independent life, the start of a more serious examination of a man's abilities and character. I am a "would be" mathematician - a great piece of luck! last year i passed examinations for receipt in institute successfully. now i am a second-year student of Oryol State University of physical and mathematical faculty. it aims to give the students the top level education and to enable them to carry on scientific recerch work.
I have always been interested in maths. In high school my favourite subject was Algebra. I am very fond of solving algebraic, equations, but it was elementary school the algebra. modern abstract algebra deals with not only equations and simple problems but with algebraic structures such as "groups", "fields", "rings".
at present, i would like to be a teacher of maths. to my mind it is a very noble profession. it is very difficult, indeed, to become a good teacher of maths.